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Articular Cartilage: Structure, Function, and Degeneration Study Guide

Learn about the spinal cord's structure, how it communicates with the body, and the various ways it can be injured. Understand the different types of spinal cord injuries, their immediate and delayed effects, and potential complications.

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Reproductive Anatomy, Hormonal Control, and Disorders

Sexual Differentiation and Hormone Production

This module covers the differentiation and development of the male and female reproductive systems, including gonads, internal structures, and external genitalia.

  • Sexual differentiation
  • Gonad development
  • Internal structure differentiation
  • External genitalia differentiation
  • Wolffian duct development
  • SRY gene
  • Testosterone influence
  • Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH)
  • Klinefelter syndrome
  • Androgen insensitivity syndrome

Overview of Malignant and Benign Conditions

This document discusses malignancy, cervical cancer, breast cancer, endometriosis, and benign prostatic hypertrophy.

  • Malignancy
  • Cervical cancer
  • Human papillomavirus (HPV)
  • Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)
  • Cervical transformation zone
  • Breast cancer
  • Genetic predisposition (BRCA)
  • Paget's disease
  • Bacterial vaginosis
  • Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
  • Endometriosis
  • Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH)
  • Leiomyomas
  • Ovarian cysts
  • Prostatitis
  • Prostate cancer

Hormonal and Menstrual Disorders

Discuss etiology, clinical manifestations and treatment of polycystic ovarian syndrome, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, abnormal uterine bleeding, and PMS/PMDD.

  • Premenstrual Syndrome
  • Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
  • Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
  • Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)
  • Dysmenorrhea
  • Hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis disruption
  • Insulin resistance
  • Affective and somatic symptoms

Structure and Alterations of Musculoskeletal Systems

Joints and Articular Cartilage Structure

This document covers the function of joints, types of joint movement, and the classification of synarthroses and diarthrosis.

  • Joint movement
  • Flexion
  • Extension
  • Rotation
  • Adduction
  • Synarthroses
  • Fibrous joints
  • Cartilaginous joints
  • Suture joint
  • Syndesmosis joint
  • Symphysis joints
  • Synchondrosis joints
  • Synovial joints
  • Synovial fluid
  • Articular cartilage
  • Joint capsule

Synovial Joints and Joint Trauma

Synovial structure includes accessory structures like ligaments and tendons, categorized by movement into uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial joints, and includes clinical manifestations of dislocation and subluxation.

  • Synovial structure
  • Ligaments and tendons
  • Menisci
  • Synovial fluid
  • Uniaxial joints
  • Hinge joints
  • Pivot joints
  • Biaxial joints
  • Condyloid joints
  • Saddle joints
  • Triaxial joints
  • Ball-and-socket joints
  • Dislocation
  • Subluxation

Characteristics and Composition of Articular Cartilage

Articular cartilage covers the ends of bones to distribute joint loads and allow movement with minimal friction.

  • Articular cartilage characteristics
  • Composition of articular cartilage
  • Extracellular matrix
  • Chondrocytes
  • Proteoglycan aggregation
  • Collagen fibers
  • Functional properties of articular cartilage
  • Interfacial wear
  • Fatigue joint wear
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Degenerative joint disease

Alterations in Bone Function

This content discusses bone structure disorders, metabolic bone disease, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and rickets.

  • Spinal Deformities
  • Osteoporosis
  • Bone resorption
  • Bone formation
  • Trabeculae
  • Cancellous bone
  • Cortical bone
  • Osteomalacia
  • Rickets
  • Vitamin D deficiency
  • Kyphosis

Bone Tumors and Neoplasms

Neoplasms can be benign or malignant, with malignant neoplasms referred to as sarcomas and metastatic lesions spreading to bone from primary carcinomas.

  • Bone Tumors
  • Benign neoplasms
  • Malignant neoplasms
  • Sarcomas
  • Metastatic lesions
  • Primary carcinomas
  • Common bone sites

Alterations in Skeletal Muscle

  • Muscular Dystrophy
  • Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
  • Dystrophin protein deficiency
  • Fibromyalgia Syndrome
  • Acetylcholine receptor antibodies
  • Neuromuscular junction
  • Ptosis
  • Diplopia

Alterations in Bone Function and Fractures

This content examines fractures, including causes, types, and complications such as compartment syndrome and epiphyseal plate damage.

  • Fractures
  • Epiphyseal plate fractures
  • Limb length discrepancy
  • Delayed healing
  • Delayed union
  • Malunion
  • Nonunion
  • Osteonecrosis
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Neurovascular injury
  • Deep vein thrombosis
  • Fat emboli
  • Compartment syndrome
  • Perfusion pressure
  • Five Ps

Alterations in Bone Function Osteomyelitis

Osteomyelitis is a severe pyogenic infection of bone and local tissue.

  • Osteomyelitis
  • Pyogenic infection
  • Bone infection transmission
  • Osteomyelitis treatment

Rheumatic Disorders of the Musculoskeletal System

A study of degenerative joint disorders, systemic autoimmune inflammatory diseases, and disturbances of uric acid metabolism.

  • Osteoarthritis
  • Degenerative joint disorder
  • Articular cartilage loss
  • Bone spurs
  • Crepitus
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis
  • Systemic autoimmune inflammatory disease
  • Synovial membrane inflammation
  • Pediatric Rheumatoid Arthritis
  • Gout
  • Uric acid metabolism
  • Hyperuricemia
  • Urate crystal-induced arthritis
  • Tophi
  • Asymptomatic hyperuricemia
  • Acute gouty arthritis
  • Intercritical gout
  • Chronic tophaceous gout

Structure and Function of Bone

The skeletal system includes the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton which provide protection, bony attachments, movement, and mineral and marrow storage.

  • Skull
  • Vertebral column
  • Thorax
  • Upper and lower extremities
  • Shoulder girdle
  • Protection
  • Bony attachments
  • Movement
  • Mineral and marrow storage

Bone Composition and Tissue Components

This document covers bone composition including cellular components, collagen fibers, mineral and water composition, and the Haversian system.

  • Bone Composition
  • Cellular components
  • Collagen fibers
  • Mineral and water composition
  • Haversian system
  • Bone tissue composition

Bone Growth and Remodeling Processes

Bone growth involves four zones of epiphyseal plate and bone remodeling through balanced cycles of bone resorption and bone formation.

  • Four zones of epiphyseal plate
  • Resting cartilage
  • Proliferating cartilage
  • Maturing cartilage
  • Calcifying cartilage
  • Bone remodeling
  • Bone resorption
  • Bone formation
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteoclasts
  • Osteocytes

Alterations in Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle alterations include muscle atrophy, hypertrophy, rigidity, contracture, and rhabdomyolysis.

  • Muscle Atrophy
  • Muscle Hypertrophy
  • Muscle Rigidity
  • Contracture
  • Rhabdomyolysis
  • Sarcolemma disruption
  • Myoglobin
  • Acute kidney injury
  • Muscle cell destruction mechanisms

Structure and Function of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle enables bones to move at the joint and provides strength, stability, and protection to the skeleton.

  • Muscle composition
  • Muscle fiber
  • Sarcolemma
  • Fasciculi
  • Endomysium
  • Perimysium
  • Epimysium
  • Contractile apparatus
  • Sarcomeres
  • Troponin
  • Tropomyosin
  • Hypocalcemia
  • Hypercalcemia
  • Slow oxidative muscle fiber
  • Fast glycolytic muscle fiber
  • Muscle atrophy
  • Aging patient considerations

Structure and Function of Ligaments and Tendons

Ligaments and tendons are dense connective tissue structures that provide joint stability and assist in the generation of movement.

  • Structure and function of tendons and ligaments
  • Dense connective tissue composition
  • Collagen fibers and extracellular matrix
  • Elastin and elasticity
  • Avulsion fractures
  • Tendon strains
  • Tendonitis
  • Life-span considerations
  • Impact of aging on fibroblasts
  • Effects of immobilization and disuse

Structure and Function of Bone

This content covers osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes, the RANK/RANKL/OPG pathway, calcium homeostasis, and the five stages of fracture healing.

  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteoclasts
  • Osteocytes
  • RANK/RANKL/OPG Pathway
  • Calcium Homeostasis
  • Parathyroid hormone
  • Vitamin D
  • Calcitonin
  • Fracture Healing
  • Hematoma formation
  • Fibrocartilage formation
  • Callus formation
  • Ossification
  • Consolidation/remodeling
  • Aging Patient
  • Bone absorption
  • Kyphosis
  • Synovial membrane

Pediatric Musculoskeletal Considerations and Development

This document covers skeletal development, bone deformities, and clinical manifestations of pediatric musculoskeletal conditions.

  • Skeletal Development
  • Syndactyly
  • Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
  • Ortolani sign
  • Barlow test
  • Trendelenburg gait
  • Equinovarus deformity
  • Pes planus
  • Metatarsus adductus
  • Osteogenesis Imperfecta

Endocrine Hormone Structure, Regulation, and Disorders

Hypothalamic Pituitary Endocrine Axis and Feedback

The hypothalamic-pituitary endocrine system maintains homeostasis through a three-tiered axis involving the hypothalamus, pituitary, and target gland hormones regulated by negative and positive feedback mechanisms.

  • Hypothalamic-pituitary endocrine system
  • Homeostasis
  • Three-tiered axis
  • Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
  • Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
  • Hypophyseal portal system
  • Stimulatory releasing factors
  • Inhibitory hypothalamic factors
  • Axonal projections
  • Negative feedback regulation
  • Positive feedback
  • Ultrashort feedback
  • Short feedback
  • Long feedback
  • Oxytocin
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Posterior Pituitary Hormones and Endocrine Mechanisms

This content discusses posterior pituitary hormones including antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, their physiological roles, and related conditions like diabetes insipidus.

  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • Serum osmolality
  • Water reabsorption
  • Aquaporins
  • Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)
  • Hypervolemia
  • Dilutional hyponatremia
  • Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
  • Neurogenic/central diabetes insipidus
  • Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
  • Psychogenic diabetes insipidus
  • Oxytocin
  • Positive feedback
  • Milk ejection

Endocrine Hormone and Receptor Regulation

Overview of hormone characteristics, secretion types, and receptor response mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.

  • Feedback systems
  • Positive feedback
  • Negative feedback
  • Homeostasis
  • Endocrine secretion
  • Receptor specificity
  • Receptor affinity
  • Up-regulation
  • Down-regulation
  • Pituitary/hypothalamus

Growth Hormone and Thyroid Hormone Regulation

This material covers growth hormone excess and deficiency, thyroid gland structure, and the regulation and dysregulation of thyroid hormones.

  • Acromegaly
  • Gigantism
  • Growth Hormone
  • Thyroid gland
  • Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone
  • Triiodothyronine
  • Thyroxine
  • Hyperthyroidism
  • Hypothyroidism

Thyroid Hormone Deficiency and Excess

Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of thyroid hormone deficiency, Hashimoto thyroiditis, Graves’ disease, and thyroid storm.

  • Thyroid hormone deficiency
  • Congenital hypothyroidism
  • Clinical manifestations of hypothyroidism
  • Primary and secondary hypothyroidism
  • Levothyroxine treatment
  • Hashimoto thyroiditis
  • Thyroid hormone excess
  • Graves’ disease
  • Exophthalmos
  • Hyperthyroidism diagnosis
  • Radioactive iodine uptake study
  • Antithyroid drugs
  • Thyroid storm

Hormone Structure, Function, and Mechanisms

This document covers the chemical structure, types, and mechanisms of action for water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones.

  • Water-soluble hormones
  • Lipid-soluble hormones
  • Peptide hormones
  • Catecholamines
  • Steroid hormones
  • Thyroid hormones
  • Signal transduction
  • Second-messenger molecules
  • G-protein-linked receptor signaling
  • Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
  • Intracellular receptors
  • Messenger RNA transcription

Categories and Diagnosis of Endocrine Disorders

This content covers the etiology, classification, and clinical manifestations of endocrine diseases including primary, secondary, and tertiary disorders and panhypopituitarism.

  • Hyposecretion
  • Hypersecretion
  • Hyporesponsive target cell
  • Functional disorders
  • Iatrogenic disorders
  • Tissue resistance
  • Congenital defects
  • Autoimmune disorders
  • Neoplastic disorders
  • Primary endocrine disorders
  • Secondary endocrine disorders
  • Tertiary endocrine disorders
  • Hypothalamic-pituitary feedback loops
  • Panhypopituitarism
  • Hormone replacement therapy
  • Gonadotropins insufficiency
  • Growth hormone deficiency
  • Thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency

Growth Hormone and Thyroid Hormone Regulation

Growth hormone is regulated by hypothalamic release of growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin, affecting lean body mass, fat mass, and IGF-1 production.

  • Growth Hormone regulation
  • Growth hormone-releasing hormone
  • Somatostatin
  • Anterior pituitary
  • Growth Hormone Deficiency
  • Growth Hormone Excess
  • Gigantism
  • Acromegaly
  • Hypoglycemia
  • Hypercholesterolemia
  • GH replacement therapy

Neuroanatomy, Neuronal Function, and Pain Physiology

Autonomic Nervous System Anatomy and Pathophysiology

The autonomic nervous system provides involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands through sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric subdivisions.

  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Sympathetic nervous system
  • Parasympathetic nervous system
  • Enteric nervous system
  • Epinephrine
  • Norepinephrine
  • Dysautonomia
  • Pheochromocytoma
  • Catecholamine release

Spinal Cord Anatomy and Injury Mechanisms

The spinal cord conveys nervous impulses between the brain and spinal nerves, featuring gray matter arranged as horns and protected by spinal vertebrae and meninges.

  • Spinal nerve pairs
  • Spinal reflexes
  • Ventral horn
  • Lateral horn
  • Vertebral column
  • Intervertebral foramen
  • Spinal plexus
  • Dermatome
  • Primary injury mechanisms
  • Secondary injury mechanisms

Spinal Cord Syndromes and Injuries

This document examines spinal cord syndromes, injury complications, and back pain etiology.

  • Brown-Séquard syndrome
  • Central cord syndrome
  • Anterior cord syndrome
  • Spinal shock
  • Neurogenic shock
  • Autonomic hyperreflexia
  • Spinal cord injury complications
  • Nonspecific low back pain

Somatic Nervous System Neurophysiology

The somatic nervous system innervates skin and skeletal muscle to control voluntary body movements through sensory and motor nerves.

  • Somatic nervous system
  • Sensory nerves
  • Motor nerves
  • Anterior horn of the spinal cord
  • Primary sensory neurons
  • Secondary sensory neurons
  • Tertiary sensory neurons
  • Somatosensory cortex
  • Sensory receptors
  • Receptor potentials
  • Dorsal column–medial lemniscal tract
  • Anterolateral spinothalamic tract
  • Proprioception
  • Homunculus map

Somatic Nervous System Motor Function

Motor function requires interaction among the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cortex involving upper and lower motor neurons.

  • Upper motor neurons
  • Lower motor neurons
  • Corticospinal tract
  • Extrapyramidal tracts
  • Alpha motor neurons
  • Gamma motor neurons
  • Spinal reflexes
  • Motor homunculus
  • Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Neuronal Structure and Communication

This content covers neuronal structure and function, including neurons, glial cells, and membrane action potentials.

  • Neurons
  • Glial cells
  • Dendrites
  • Multipolar neurons
  • Bipolar neurons
  • Unipolar neurons
  • Oligodendrocytes
  • Microglia
  • Ependymal cells
  • Astrocytes
  • Membrane action potentials
  • Neurotransmitters
  • Voltage-gated sodium channels
  • Voltage-gated potassium channels
  • Depolarization
  • Repolarization
  • Axonal conduction
  • Saltatory conduction
  • Nodes of Ranvier

Neuronal Communication and Related Diseases

This content covers synaptic transmission mechanisms and diseases affecting axonal conduction and synaptic transmission.

  • Multiple Sclerosis
  • Guillain-Barré Syndrome
  • Synaptic Transmission
  • Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
  • Spatial summation
  • Temporal summation
  • Botulism
  • Axonal conduction
  • Neurotransmitter exocytosis
  • Demyelination

Mechanisms and Types of Traumatic Brain Injury

This content examines mechanisms of primary and secondary brain injury, including traumatic brain injury, concussion, contusion, diffuse axonal injury, and various intracranial hematomas.

  • Primary brain injury
  • Secondary brain injury
  • Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
  • Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)
  • Concussion
  • Post-concussion syndrome
  • Secondary impact syndrome
  • Contusion
  • Coup and coup–countercoup injuries
  • Diffuse axonal injury
  • Epidural hematoma
  • Subdural hematoma
  • Subarachnoid hemorrhage
  • Increased intracranial pressure (ICP)
  • Transtentorial herniation

Acute Disorders of Brain Function

This topic covers cerebrovascular disease, including cerebral aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, transient ischemic attacks, and cerebrovascular accident, as well as CNS infections like bacterial meningitis and encephalitis.

  • Cerebral Aneurysm
  • Arteriovenous Malformation
  • Cerebrovascular Disease
  • Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
  • Ischemic Stroke
  • Hemorrhagic Stroke
  • CNS Infections
  • Bacterial Meningitis
  • Encephalitis

Physiology of Pain and Nociception

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience involving the physiologic mechanisms of nociception divided into transduction, transmission, perception, and modulation.

  • Nociception
  • Transduction
  • Transmission
  • Perception
  • Modulation
  • Nociceptors
  • Neospinothalamic tract
  • Paleospinothalamic tract
  • Pain threshold
  • Pain tolerance
  • Pain expression
  • Endogenous opioids
  • Gate control theory

Classification and Physiology of Pain

This content explores the types, classifications, and clinical manifestations of physiologic, pathologic, acute, chronic, neuropathic, cancer, ischemic, and referred pain.

  • Physiologic pain
  • Pathologic pain
  • Acute pain
  • Chronic pain
  • Fibromyalgia
  • Cancer pain
  • Neuropathic pain
  • Trigeminal neuralgia
  • Postherpetic neuralgia
  • Diabetic neuropathy
  • Ischemic pain
  • Referred pain
  • Hyperalgesia
  • Allodynia
  • Nociception

Physiology and Management of Pain

Physiologic responses to pain and management interventions directed at interrupting peripheral transmission, modulating spinal cord transmission, or altering perception in the brain.

  • Sympathetic nervous system activation
  • Pain perception in infants and elderly
  • Peripheral transmission of nociception
  • Spinal cord pain modulation
  • Brain perception and integration of nociceptive impulses
  • NSAIDs and prostaglandins
  • Local anesthetic agents
  • Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
  • Opioid receptors and analgesics

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