Understanding the Human Excretory System Study Guide
Understanding the Human Excretory System
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Ingestion, Digestion, and Absorption Processes
Human Digestive System Anatomy and Physiology
The digestive system performs mechanical and chemical digestion through accessory organs, enzymes, and hormones to facilitate nutrient absorption in the small intestine and water absorption in the large intestine.
- mechanical digestion
- chemical digestion
- duodenum
- cecum
- colon
- rectum
- pancreas
- liver
- gallbladder
- bile
- bile salts
- pancreatic juices
- brush-border enzymes
- disaccharidases
- peptidases
- secretin
- cholecystokinin
- microvilli
- lacteals
- fat-soluble vitamins
Human Digestive System Anatomy and Physiology
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Kidney Physiology and Renal Filtration
Physiology of the Excretory System
The kidneys use osmolarity gradients and selective permeability to filter, secrete, and reabsorb materials to control blood pressure, blood osmolarity, and acid-base balance.
- Descending limb
- Ascending limb
- Countercurrent multiplier system
- Vasa recta
- Medullary osmolarity
- Distal convoluted tubule
- Collecting duct
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Sodium reabsorption
- Water reabsorption
- Urine concentration
Physiology of the Excretory System
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Cell Division and the Reproductive System
Human Reproductive System and Gametogenesis
This content explores chromosomal sex determination, male and female reproductive anatomy, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and the hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle.
- chromosomal sex determination
- SRY gene
- male reproductive anatomy
- seminiferous tubules
- Sertoli cells
- testosterone
- spermatogenesis
- female reproductive anatomy
- oogenesis
- menstrual cycle
- follicular phase
- ovulation
- luteal phase
- menstruation
- estrogen
- progesterone
- FSH
- LH
- GnRH
Human Reproductive System and Hormonal Regulation
This document covers chromosomal sex determination, male and female reproductive structures, spermatogenesis, oogenesis, and the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle.
- chromosomal sex determination
- X-linked disorders
- SRY gene
- spermatogenesis
- sperm structure
- oogenesis
- ovulation
- gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
- follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- luteinizing hormone (LH)
- testosterone
- estrogen
- progesterone
- menstrual cycle
- menopause
Muscle Types and Physiology
Overview of the Muscular System
The muscular system is composed of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle types that rely on calcium for contraction.
- skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle
- sarcomere
- myogenic activity
- red fibers
- white fibers
- intercalated discs
- SA node
- AV node
- Purkinje fibers
Fundamental Concepts of Genetics and Epigenetics
Fundamental Concepts of Mendelian Genetics
The physical and biochemical characteristics of every living organism are determined by genes, which are DNA sequences that code for heritable traits.
- alleles
- genotype
- phenotype
- homozygous
- heterozygous
- hemizygous
- complete dominance
- codominance
- incomplete dominance
- penetrance
- expressivity
- Mendel's Law of Segregation
- Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
- recombination
- transforming principle
- epigenetics
- methylation
- acetylation
- X-inactivation
- imprinting
Anatomy and Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
Anatomy and Electrical Conduction of the Heart
The cardiovascular system consists of a muscular four-chambered heart, blood vessels, and blood that distribute blood through pulmonary and systemic circulation.
- cardiovascular system
- heart anatomy
- pulmonary circulation
- systemic circulation
- ventricles
- atrioventricular valves
- semilunar valves
- electrical conduction system
- sinoatrial node
- atrioventricular node
- bundle of His
- Purkinje fibers
- electrocardiogram
- autonomic nervous system
- diastole
- cardiac output
Structure of the Immune System
Structure of the Immune System
The human body utilizes innate and adaptive immunity to protect against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
- innate immunity
- adaptive immunity
- nonspecific immunity
- specific immunity
- immunological memory
- leukocytes
- hematopoiesis
- B-cells
- plasma cells
- humoral immunity
- T-cells
- cell-mediated immunity
- bone marrow
- spleen
- lymph nodes
- gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
- granulocytes
- agranulocytes
Anatomy and Physiology of the Excretory System
Urine Formation and Renal Physiology
The kidney uses mechanisms such as filtration, secretion, and reabsorption to produce urine and to regulate the blood volume and osmolarity.
- Filtration
- Secretion
- Reabsorption
- Proximal convoluted tubule
- Glomerulus
- Efferent arteriole
- Blood pressure regulation
- Osmolarity
Skeletal Muscle Structure and Contraction
Microscopic Structure of Muscle Types
This text discusses the types of muscle, including skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle, and the microscopic structure of the sarcomere.
- Skeletal muscle
- Cardiac muscle
- Smooth muscle
- Sarcomere
- Thick filaments
- Thin filaments
- Actin
- Troponin
- Tropomyosin
- Z-lines
- M-line
- I-band
- H-zone
- A-band
- Myofibrils
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Sarcoplasm
- Sarcolemma
- T-tubules
Architecture and Physiology of Skeletal Muscle
This text describes muscle anatomy and the coordinated steps of muscle contraction involving myocytes, myofibrils, sarcomeres, and the neuromuscular junction.
- sarcomeres
- myofibrils
- sarcoplasmic reticulum
- sarcoplasm
- sarcolemma
- transverse tubules
- Myocytes
- muscle fiber
- muscle contraction
- neuromuscular junction
- acetylcholine
- motor unit
- calcium ions
- troponin
- tropomyosin
- actin thin filament
- myosin-binding sites
Changes in the Gene Pool
Changes in the Gene Pool
Mutations, genetic leakage, and genetic drift cause changes to the alleles or their frequency in the gene pool.
- gene pool
- genetic variability
- mutation
- mutagens
- transposons
- nucleotide-level mutations
- silent mutation
- missense mutation
- nonsense mutation
- frameshift mutation
- insertion mutation
- deletion mutation
- genetic leakage
- genetic drift
- founder effect
- chromosomal mutation
Heart Sounds, Rhythms, and Hemodynamic Variables
Circulatory System and Cardiac Function
This content examines heart sounds, valve function, ventricular tachycardia, and the effects of atorvastatin on pressure-volume cardiac cycle loops and stroke volume.
- AV valves
- semilunar valves
- diastole
- Cardiac cycle
- ventricular tachycardia
- atorvastatin
- myocardial infarction
- pressure-volume cardiac cycle loops
- hemodynamic variables
- dP/dt
- Ejection fraction
- end-systolic elastance
- preload recruitable stroke work
- stroke volume
Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems
Immune and Lymphatic System Anatomy
The immune system consists of innate and adaptive immunity involving leukocytes, lymphocytes, and major histocompatibility complex molecules to protect against pathogens.
- Innate immunity
- Adaptive immunity
- Humoral immunity
- Cell-mediated immunity
- Hematopoiesis
- Granulocytes
- Agranulocytes
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Macrophages
- B-cells
- T-cells
- Natural killer cells
- Mast cells
- Dendritic cells
- MHC class I
Urine Formation and Renal Physiology
Excretory System Osmoregulation and Acid-Base Balance
The kidneys control blood osmolarity and acid-base balance through water reabsorption, solute excretion, and the regulation of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate.
- Osmoregulation
- Blood osmolarity
- Oncotic pressure
- ADH
- Vasopressin
- Bicarbonate buffer system
- Acid-base balance
- Carbonic anhydrase II
- Renin release
- Renal segments
- Water reabsorption
- Urinary concentration
Muscle Contraction, Tetanus, and Fatigue
Muscle Contraction and Physiological Responses
This content discusses muscle fiber contraction, simple twitches, frequency summation, tetanus, and the relationship between temperature and muscle tension generation.
- simple twitch
- latent period
- contraction period
- relaxation period
- sarcoplasmic reticulum
- tetanus
- tetanospasmin
- frequency summation
- muscle fatigue
- muscle tension generation
- temperature effects on muscle tension
- red-twitch muscle fibers
- fast-twitch muscle fibers
- oxidative phosphorylation
- glycolysis
- fermentation
- creatine phosphate
- myoglobin
- oxygen debt
- lactic acid
Chromosomal Mutations and Genetic Variation
Chromosomal Mutations and Genetic Variation
This text explores chromosomal mutations, the consequences of mutations, genetic leakage, and genetic drift.
- chromosomal mutations
- deletion mutations
- duplication mutations
- inversion mutations
- insertion mutations
- translocation mutations
- advantageous mutations
- deleterious mutations
- inborn errors of metabolism
- genetic leakage
- hybrid offspring
- genetic drift
- founder effect
- inbreeding
- homozygosity
- inbreeding depression
- outbreeding
The Vasculature and Blood Composition
Human Circulatory System and Blood Composition
The circulatory system utilizes vessels including arteries, veins, and capillaries to transport blood, while blood consists of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
- arteries
- veins
- capillaries
- arterioles
- venules
- endothelial cells
- vasodilation
- vasoconstriction
- myocardial infarction
- beta-blockers
- hemoglobin
- hematocrit
- plasma
- serum
- erythrocytes
- leukocytes
- granulocytes
- agranulocytes
- lymphocytes
- monocytes
Physiology of the Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system transports gases, nutrients, and waste products via red blood cells and plasma while maintaining blood pressure and mediating coagulation.
- ABO blood types
- Rh factor
- erythroblastosis fetalis
- blood pressure
- systolic and diastolic pressures
- cardiac output
- vascular resistance
- gas and solute exchange
- hemoglobin cooperative binding
- oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
- Bohr effect
- bicarbonate buffer system
- hydrostatic and osmotic pressure
- Starling forces
- coagulation cascade
- platelet aggregation
- fibrin formation
The Lymphatic and Immune Systems
The Lymphatic and Immune Systems
The lymphatic system serves as a circulatory system that equalizes fluid distribution, transports fats, and provides sites for mounting immune responses involving innate and adaptive immunity.
- lymphatic system structure
- lymph nodes
- Lymphatic vessels
- fluid distribution equalization
- Lymph
- transportation of chylomicrons
- innate immune system
- adaptive immune system
- B-cells
- T-cells
- humoral immunity
- cell-mediated immunity
- antigen-presenting cells
- MHC class I
- MHC class II
- antibodies
- leukocytes
- macrophages
- natural killer cells
- granulocytes
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