Understanding the Respiratory System Study Guide

Components and Functions of Blood

Blood consists of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets, with plasma proteins performing functions such as establishing osmotic gradient and blood clotting.

• Plasma
• Erythrocytes
• Leukocytes
• Platelets
• Plasma proteins
• Albumin
• Globulins
• Fibrinogen
• Colloid osmotic pressure
• Buffy coat
• Hematocrit

Erythrocyte Structure and Oxygen Transport

• Erythrocytes
• Oxygen transport
• pH maintenance
• Biconcave disc-shaped cells
• Diffusion
• Membrane flexibility
• Flexible membrane
• Hemoglobin

Structure and Function of Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin consists of four folded polypeptide chains and four iron-containing heme groups that reversibly bind oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and nitric oxide.

• Hemoglobin structure
• Polypeptide chains
• Heme groups
• Oxygen binding
• Carbon dioxide transport
• Hydrogen ion buffering
• Nitric oxide transport
• Vasodilation

Erythrocyte Characteristics and Erythropoiesis Processes

This material covers erythrocyte life span, the process of erythropoiesis regulated by erythropoietin, and conditions including anemia and polycythemia.

• Erythrocytes
• Erythropoiesis
• Hematopoietic stem cells
• Erythropoietin (EPO)
• Reticulocytes
• Anemia
• Polycythemia
• Hematocrit

Blood Types and Plasma Antibodies

Blood types depend on surface antigens present on the membrane of RBCs and antibodies present in plasma.

• Blood types
• Surface antigens
• RBCs
• Type A antigens
• Type B antigens
• Type AB universal recipients
• Type O universal donors
• Antibodies
• Plasma

Components of Blood and Leukocytes

Leukocytes are mobile units of the immune defense system that protect against disease.

• Leukocytes
• Cytokines
• Granulocytes
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes
• Macrophages

Components of Blood and Hemostasis

Information regarding platelets, megakaryocytes, and the process of hemostasis.

• Platelets
• Thrombocytes
• Megakaryocytes
• Hemostasis
• Thrombopoietin
• Leukocytes
• Erythrocytes

Processes of Primary and Secondary Hemostasis

Hemostasis involves primary hemostasis through vascular spasm and platelet plug formation, followed by secondary hemostasis through stable fibrin clot formation.

• Primary hemostasis
• Secondary hemostasis
• Vascular spasm
• Vasoconstriction
• Platelet plug formation
• Fibrin clot formation
• Platelet adhesion
• Exposed collagen
• von Willebrand factor
• Platelet activation
• Shape change
• Granule content secretion
• ADP
• Thromboxane
• Nitric oxide

Hemostasis and White Blood Cell Functions

The process of blood coagulation via the clotting cascade and the functions of various white blood cells.

• Primary hemostasis
• Secondary hemostasis
• Intrinsic Pathway
• Extrinsic Pathway
• Common Pathway
• Fibrinolysis
• Thrombus
• Emboli
• Eosinophil
• Lymphocytes
• Natural Killer cells
• B cells
• T cells
• Monocytes
• Macrophages

Vasculature Properties and Hemorrhage Application

This topic discusses flow and resistance, types of vasculature and their properties, intrinsic and extrinsic control of vasculature, bulk flow and Starling’s Law, and the baroreceptor reflex.

• Flow and resistance
• Types of vasculature and their properties
• Intrinsic and extrinsic control of vasculature
• Bulk flow
• Starling’s Law
• Baroreceptor reflex
• Hemorrhage

Mechanisms of Oxygen Transport and Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin carries oxygen through the blood using polypeptide chains and heme groups to facilitate oxygen loading in lungs and unloading in tissues.

• Oxygen transport
• Hemoglobin structure
• Heme group
• Ferrous state
• Tense state
• Relaxed state
• Cooperativity
• Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
• Percent hemoglobin saturation
• Oxygen affinity

The Peripheral Nervous System Efferent Division

Information communicated from the CNS to effector organs through the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

• Somatic Nervous System
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Preganglionic fiber
• Postganglionic fiber
• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division
• Photoreceptor hyperpolarization
• Retinal processing
• On-center bipolar cells
• Off-center ganglion cells

Autonomic Nervous System Neurotransmitters and Receptors

This content details how neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and norepinephrine act on cholinergic and adrenergic receptors within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Norepinephrine (NE)
• Cholinergic fibers
• Adrenergic fibers
• Nicotinic receptors
• Adrenergic receptors
• Ionotropic receptors
• Metabotropic receptors
• G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR)
• Alpha (α) receptors
• Beta (β) receptors
• Sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathetic nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System Function and Structure

The autonomic nervous system utilizes preganglionic and postganglionic fibers, varicosities, and neurotransmitters to provide dual innervation and maintain sympathetic or parasympathetic tone.

• Autonomic Nervous System
• preganglionic fibers
• postganglionic fibers
• varicosities
• Neurotransmitters
• sympathetic nervous system
• parasympathetic nervous system
• dual innervation
• sympathetic tone
• parasympathetic tone
• neurotransmitters
• agonist

Somatic Nervous System and Motor Units

Information regarding neurotransmitter related terms, the somatic nervous system, and the neuromuscular junction.

• Agonist
• Antagonist
• Somatic Nervous System
• Efferent motor neuron
• Acetylcholine
• Neuromuscular Junction
• Motor Unit
• Muscle fiber

Neuromuscular Junction and Neuron Types

The neuromuscular junction involves acetylcholine release, nicotinic ACh receptors, and end plate potentials, while different neuron types include afferent, efferent, and interneurons.

• Neuromuscular Junction
• Motor end plate
• Acetylcholine
• Nicotinic ACh receptors
• Ionotropic receptor
• Ligand-gated non-specific cation channel
• End Plate Potential (EPP)
• Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
• Black widow venom
• Curare
• Organophosphates
• Afferent neurons
• Efferent neurons
• Interneurons
• Autonomic Nervous System
• Somatic Nervous System

Medullary Respiratory Control Centers

The medullary respiratory center acts as a central pattern generator to establish automatic rhythm for contraction of respiratory muscles.

• Medullary Respiratory Center
• Central Pattern Generator (CPG)
• Ventral Respiratory Group
• Inspiratory neurons
• Expiratory neurons
• Phrenic nerve
• Diaphragm
• External intercostals

Excitable Cells and Cardiac Conductive Pathways

Excitable cells of the heart including contractile cells, nodal cells, and specialized conductive cells coordinate action potentials and contractions through gap junctions and specific ion channels.

• Contractile Cells
• Autorhythmic Cells
• Pacemaker Potential
• SA node
• AV node
• Bundle of His
• Purkinje Fibers
• Ventricular Myocardial cells
• Internodal pathways
• Nodal delay
• Action potentials
• T-type Ca channels
• L-type Ca channels

Non Nodal Cardiac Action Potential

The non nodal cardiac action potential involves resting membrane potential, depolarization, small repolarization, plateau, and repolarization.

• Resting membrane potential
• Depolarization
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels
• Small repolarization
• Transient outward K+ current
• Plateau
• L-type Ca+2 channels
• Repolarization
• Voltage-gated K+ channels

Ca+2-Induced Ca+2 Release Mechanisms

• Ca+2-Induced Ca+2 Release
• L-type Ca+2 channels
• DHP receptor
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
• Cardiac contraction
• Refractory period
• T tubules

Mechanisms of Changing Heart Rate and Force

Changing the heart rate and strength of contraction involves funny channels, K+ channels, Ca2+ channels, and muscarinic or beta1 adrenergic receptors.

• rate of depolarization
• maximum diastolic potential
• hyperpolarization
• funny channels (If)
• K+ channels
• Ca2+ channels
• ACh
• vagus nerve
• NE (and E)
• beta1 adrenergic receptors
• sympathetics
• catecholamines
• strength of contraction
• Ca2+ induced Ca2+ release
• SERCA pumps

Muscle Cell Types and Filament Structure

• Skeletal muscle
• Smooth muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Sarcolemma
• Endomysium
• Myofibrils
• Sarcomeres
• Thick filaments
• Thin filaments
• Actin
• Tropomyosin
• Troponin

The Sliding Filament Mechanism

• Sliding Filament Mechanism
• Cross bridges
• Sarcomere shortening
• Thin and thick filaments
• Z lines

Power Stroke and Cross-bridge Cycle

• Power stroke
• Skeletal muscle
• ATP hydrolysis
• Actin
• Conformational change
• Sarcomere
• Cross-bridge cycle
• Intracellular Ca+2

Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Muscle Cells

Excitation-contraction coupling links muscle excitation to muscle contraction through action potentials, T-tubules, and calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

• Excitation-Contraction Coupling (ECC)
• Action potential
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Nicotinic postsynaptic receptor (nAChR)
• Transverse tubules (T-tubules)
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Terminal cisternae
• DHP (dihydropyridine) receptors
• Calcium (Ca+2) release
• Troponin C
• Tropomyosin

Muscle Relaxation and Calcium Sequestration

Muscle relaxation occurs after action potential completion when Ca+2 is actively transported into lateral sacs via the Ca+2-ATPase (SERCA) pump.

• Relaxation
• Ca+2-ATPase (SERCA) pump
• Calsequestrin
• Calreticulin
• Excitation-contraction coupling
• Tropomyosin
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
• T-tubules

Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Contraction

Skeletal muscle regulation occurs at the systems level through increased recruitment of motor units and at the cellular level through increased frequency of stimulation.

• Action potential
• Contractile response
• Excitation-contraction coupling
• Regulation of skeletal muscle
• Motor unit recruitment
• Summation
• Tetanus
• Spatial summation
• Size principle

Muscle Contraction and Fatigue Mechanisms

• Frequency-Tension Relationship
• Twitch summation
• Tetanus
• Muscle Fatigue
• Lactic acid buildup
• Cross-bridge cycling
• Length-Tension Relationship
• Optimal muscle length
• Passive tension
• Active tension
• Load-Velocity Relationship
• Concentric contractions
• ATP hydrolysis

Skeletal Muscle ATP Consumption and Production

Skeletal muscle requires ATP for myosin ATP hydrolysis, Ca+2-ATPase, and Na+-K+ ATPase, which is produced through creatine phosphate, oxidative phosphorylation, and glycolysis.

• Myosin ATP hydrolysis
• Ca+2-ATPase
• SERCA pumps
• Na+-K+ ATPase
• Creatine Phosphate
• Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Glycolysis
• Pyruvate
• Lactate

Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

Skeletal muscle fibers include slow-oxidative, fast-oxidative, and fast-glycolytic types characterized by ATPase activity, speed of contraction, and resistance to fatigue.

• Slow-oxidative (type I) fibers
• Fast-oxidative (type IIa) fibers
• Fast-glycolytic (type IIb/IIx) fibers
• Myosin-ATPase activity
• Speed of contraction
• Resistance to fatigue
• Oxidative phosphorylation capacity
• Enzymes for anaerobic glycolysis
• Mitochondria
• Capillaries
• Myoglobin content

Comparison of Smooth and Cardiac Muscle

Muscle types including skeletal, smooth, and cardiac exhibit the sliding-filament mechanism involving actin and myosin filaments.

• Skeletal muscle
• Smooth muscle
• Cardiac muscle
• Sliding-filament mechanism
• Actin and myosin filaments
• Intracellular Ca2+
• ATP
• Cross-bridge cycle
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
• Myogenic contraction
• Pacemaker potentials
• Slow-wave potentials
• Graded contractions
• Autonomic nervous system varicosities
• Mechanical stretch
• Stress relaxation response
• Latch state
• Cardiac muscle properties

Structure and Function of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle cells are small, spindle shaped, and contain actin filaments anchored to dense bodies without sarcomeres or striations.

• Smooth muscle structure
• Spindle shaped cells
• Actin filaments
• Dense bodies
• Thick filaments
• Myosin proteins
• Cross bridges
• Lack of sarcomeres and striations

Smooth Muscle Regulation and Contraction

Smooth muscle regulation involves Ca+2 binding calmodulin to activate myosin light chain kinase for phosphorylation of myosin light chains and cross-bridge formation.

• Smooth muscle regulation
• Tropomyosin
• Calmodulin
• Myosin light chain phosphorylation
• Cross-bridges
• Tonic contraction
• Phasic contraction
• IP3-Ca+2 second messenger pathway
• Voltage-gated DHP receptors

Smooth and Cardiac Muscle Contraction

Smooth muscle types, calcium sources, relaxation mechanisms, and influencers are compared to cardiac and skeletal muscle properties.

• Phasic contraction
• Extracellular calcium
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Voltage-gated DHP receptors
• Smooth muscle relaxation
• Multiunit smooth muscle
• Single-unit smooth muscle
• Pacemaker potentials
• Slow-wave potentials
• Graded contractions
• Autonomic nervous system varicosities
• Mechanical stretch
• Stress relaxation response
• Latch state
• Cardiac muscle properties

Mechanisms of Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Excitation-contraction coupling links muscle excitation to muscle contraction through action potentials in motor neurons and acetylcholine.

• Excitation-Contraction Coupling (ECC)
• Muscle excitation
• Muscle contraction
• Action potential
• Motor neuron
• ACh
• T-tubule permeability

Cardiac Physiology and Circulatory System

This material covers cardiac muscle properties, smooth muscle contraction, and the mechanics of the circulatory system including pulmonary and systemic circulation.

• Smooth muscle contractile response
• Latch phenomenon
• Cardiac muscle properties
• Sarcomeres
• Calcium-induced calcium release
• Pacemaker potentials
• Circulatory system components
• Pulmonary circulation
• Systemic circulation
• Capillary gas exchange
• Pressure and resistance
• Heart valves
• Atrioventricular valves
• Semilunar valves

Cardiac Wall Layers and Heart Valves

Information regarding heart valves, cordae tendineae, and the three layers of the cardiac wall including myocardium, endothelium, and epicardium.

• Atrioventricular valves
• Tricuspid valve
• Bicuspid mitral valve
• Semilunar valves
• Aortic valve
• Pulmonary valve
• Endothelium
• Myocardium
• Epicardium
• Intercalated discs
• Desmosomes

Cardiac Cycle and Blood Flow

The cardiac cycle involves systole and diastole phases, ECG waves, heart sounds, and laminar or turbulent blood flow.

• Diastole
• Isovolumetric ventricular contraction
• Ventricular ejection
• Isovolumetric ventricular relaxation
• Ventricular filling
• Atrial contraction
• Long refractory period
• Voltage-gated Na+ channels
• ECG P wave
• QRS complex
• T wave
• Atrial depolarization
• Ventricular depolarization
• Ventricular repolarization
• Atrioventricular valves
• Semilunar valves
• Heart sounds
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow

Cardiac Output and Heart Rate Regulation

This content covers cardiac output calculations and how autonomic innervation modifies heart rate and contraction strength.

• Cardiac Output
• Heart Rate
• Stroke Volume
• Autonomic Innervation
• Parasympathetic Nervous System
• Sympathetic Nervous System
• Vagus Nerve
• cAMP 2nd messenger
• Beta-1 adrenergic receptor
• Laminar and turbulent blood flow

Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume Regulation

This content explores how stroke volume and heart rate modify cardiac output through intrinsic control and the Frank-Starling Law of the Heart.

• Cardiac output
• Stroke volume
• Heart rate
• Venous return
• Sympathetic activity
• End-diastolic volume (EDV)
• Length-tension relationship
• Myofilament Ca+2 sensitivity

Extrinsic Control of Cardiac Function

Sympathetic stimulation and epinephrine increase heart contractility and enhance venous return to influence stroke volume and cardiac output.

• Sympathetic stimulation
• Epinephrine
• Heart contractility
• End-diastolic volume (EDV)
• Calcium influx
• Venous return
• Venoconstriction
• Stroke volume (SV)
• Cardiac output
• Compensated Heart Failure

Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

This material covers blood vessels, blood flow rate, pressure gradients, and resistance factors including viscosity, vessel length, and vessel radius.

• Blood vessels
• Cardiac output
• Flow rate
• Pressure gradient
• Resistance
• Friction
• Viscosity
• Vessel length
• Vessel radius
• Poiseuille’s Law

Features and Functions of Blood Vessels

This document details the structure, features, and functions of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and venules within the cardiovascular system.

• Microcirculation
• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries
• Venules
• Endothelium
• Elastin fibers
• Smooth muscle
• Collagen fibers
• Pressure reservoir
• Resistance vessels
• Cardiac output
• Diastole

Systemic Arterial Pressure and Flow

Pressure and flow oscillate as the heart acts as a two-stroke pump involving systolic and diastolic systemic arterial pressure.

• Systolic pressure
• Diastolic pressure
• Pulse Pressure
• Mean Arterial Pressure
• Cardiac cycle

Arteriole Function and Vasculature Resistance

Arterioles serve as the major site of resistance and controllers of flow into capillary beds by converting pulsatile pressure into non-fluctuating pressure.

• arterioles
• major site of resistance
• pressure drop
• controllers of flow
• capillary beds
• pulsatile pressure
• non-fluctuating pressure
• MAP

Arteriolar Smooth Muscle and Vascular Tone

Arterioles feature thick circular smooth muscle layers that regulate vascular tone, resistance, and blood flow through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

• Arteriolar smooth muscle
• Vasoconstriction
• Vasodilation
• Vascular tone
• Arteriolar resistance
• Sympathetic nervous system innervation
• Plasma membrane Ca+2 channels
• Norepinephrine (NE)
• Cardiac output distribution

Control of Arteriolar Radius

Intrinsic controls of arteriolar radius involve local chemical changes, local physical changes, and endothelial derived vasoactive paracrines.

• Intrinsic control
• Local chemical changes
• Local physical changes
• Active hyperemia
• Reactive hyperemia
• Endothelial derived vasoactive paracrines
• Nitric oxide
• Endothelin
• Myogenic response
• Autoregulation
• Shear stress

Extrinsic and Hormonal Control of Arteriolar Radius

Extrinsic sympathetic control and hormonal regulation influence arteriolar radius, total peripheral resistance, and mean arterial pressure.

• Extrinsic sympathetic control
• Arteriolar vasoconstriction
• Arteriolar vasodilation
• Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors
• Beta-2 adrenergic receptors
• Norepinephrine
• Epinephrine
• Total peripheral resistance (TPR)
• Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
• Vasopressin
• Angiotensin II
• Local control mechanisms

Blood Vessels and Capillary Exchange Dynamics

Capillaries support diffusion between blood and tissues through gas, nutrient, and waste exchange.

• Capillary diffusion
• Fick’s law
• Gas exchange
• Nutrient and waste exchange
• Endothelial cells
• Velocity of flow
• Total cross-sectional area
• Precapillary sphincters
• Myogenic tone
• Arteriolar resistance

Bulk Flow and Starling's Hypothesis

Bulk flow distributes extracellular fluid volume between vascular and interstitial fluid compartments through ultrafiltration and reabsorption processes.

• Bulk flow
• Extracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid
• Ultrafiltration
• Reabsorption
• Starling's Hypothesis
• Net exchange pressure
• Capillary hydrostatic pressure
• Plasma colloid osmotic pressure
• Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure
• Lymphatic system

Functions of Lymphatic System and Veins

The lymphatic system resorbs extra fluid and transports absorbed fat, while veins serve as blood reservoirs with high compliance and distensibility.

• Functions of lymphatic system
• Resorb extra fluid
• Defense against disease
• Lymph nodes
• Transport of absorbed fat
• Return of filtered protein
• Veins
• Blood reservoirs
• Compliance
• Distensibility

Factors Influencing Venous Return

Venous return is the volume of blood per minute entering the atrium from veins, influenced by multiple factors including sympathetic venous vasoconstriction, skeletal muscle pump, venous valves, respiratory pump, and cardiac suction.

• Venous return
• Sympathetic venous vasoconstriction
• Skeletal muscle pump
• Venous valves
• Respiratory pump
• Cardiac suction
• Pressure gradient

Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure

Mean arterial pressure is regulated by controlling cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and blood volume through the baroreceptor reflex and autonomic nervous system.

• Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
• Cardiac output (CO)
• Total peripheral resistance (TPR)
• Baroreceptor reflex
• Carotid sinus
• Aortic arch
• Medullary cardiovascular control center
• Autonomic nervous system
• Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
• Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
• Heart rate (HR)
• Vasoconstriction

Overview of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system involves external respiration through the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and provides additional functions including acid-base balance and vocalization.

• External respiration
• Cellular/Internal respiration
• Gas exchange
• Venous return
• Respiratory pump
• Acid-base balance
• Vocalization
• Pulmonary circulation
• Sense of smell

Anatomy of Respiratory Airways and Alveoli

Airways transition from conducting airways to respiratory airways, featuring changes in cilia, mucus, and cartilage as they move toward the alveoli.

• Conducting Airways
• Respiratory Airways
• Anatomical dead space
• Gas exchange
• Trachea
• Bronchioles
• Alveolar sacs
• Alveoli
• Type I alveolar cells
• Type II alveolar cells
• Pulmonary surfactant
• Pores of Kohn
• Collateral ventilation

Mechanics of Breathing and Lung Pressures

• Alveoli and blood supply
• Pathway between alveoli and red blood cells
• Optimal Gas Exchange
• Pleurae and intrapleural space
• Mechanics of Breathing
• Lung Pressures
• Transmural pressure gradient
• Inspiration and Expiration
• Thoracic cavity dimensions

• Mechanics of Breathing and Lung Pressures

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Pulmonary Mechanics and Alveolar Function

Airflow resistance, pulmonary elasticity, and alveolar surface tension are regulated by autonomic nervous system activity and pulmonary surfactant.

• Airflow resistance
• Bronchoconstriction
• Bronchodilation
• Pulmonary elasticity
• Compliance
• Elastic recoil
• Alveolar surface tension
• Pulmonary surfactant
• Law of Laplace
• Lung volumes and capacities

• Pulmonary Mechanics and Alveolar Function

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Pulmonary Ventilation and Alveolar Gas Exchange

Calculations for minute ventilation, anatomical dead space, and alveolar ventilation alongside the regulation of local ventilation and perfusion.

• Minute ventilation
• Tidal volume
• Respiratory rate
• Anatomical dead space
• Alveolar ventilation
• Conducting zone
• Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
• Bronchiolar smooth muscle
• Ventilation/perfusion regulation

Gas Exchange and Partial Pressure Laws

Partial pressure gradients between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood induce passive diffusion of O2 and CO2 based on Dalton’s Law and Henry’s Law.

• Partial pressure gradients
• Passive diffusion
• Gas exchange
• Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
• Bronchiolar smooth muscle response
• Atmospheric composition
• Ventilation/perfusion regulation

Hemoglobin Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport

Factors such as temperature, PCO2, and pH affect the Bohr effect and Haldane effect during hemoglobin oxygen and carbon dioxide transport.

• Bohr effect
• Haldane effect
• Hemoglobin affinity
• Carbon dioxide transport
• PCO2
• Bicarbonate formation
• Chloride shift
• Carbonic anhydrase
• Deoxyhemoglobin

Chemoreceptors and Breathing Modulation

Peripheral and central chemoreceptors adjust the magnitude of ventilation based on PO2, PCO2, and H+ levels, while mechanoreceptors in lungs detect stretch.

• Peripheral chemoreceptors
• Carotid and aortic bodies
• Central chemoreceptors
• Medulla
• Ventilatory response
• Arterial PO2
• Arterial PCO2
• Arterial H+
• Respiratory acidosis
• Slowly adapting stretch receptors
• Rapidly adapting stretch receptors
• Mechanoreceptors