Hemoglobin Structure and Oxygen Binding Study Guide

Biochemistry and Microbiology Chemistry Study Guide

A study guide covering chemical terms, types of bonds, chemistry of life, water roles, and acid-base balance.

• Chemical terms and definitions
• Trace elements and essential elements
• Isotopes
• Ions, anions, and cations
• Organic compounds and hydrocarbons
• Isomers
• Functional groups
• Covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds
• Free radicals
• Chemical reactions, reactants, and products
• Potential, kinetic, and chemical energy
• Exergonic and endergonic reactions
• Activation energy and catalysts
• Anabolic and catabolic reactions
• Oxidation-reduction reactions
• Water structure and roles
• Extracellular fluid
• Dehydration effects on cardiovascular system, kidneys, and electrolyte balance
• Acid-base balance and buffers
• Carbonic acid buffer system

Proteins and Enzymes Study Guide

A study guide covering the structure of proteins, amino acid structure, and enzyme function.

• Structure of proteins
• Amino acid structure
• Essential and non-essential amino acids
• Collagen, elastin, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins
• Enzyme function
• Substrate in enzyme reactions
• Kinase, phosphatase, dehydrogenase, hydrolase, synthase, and isomerase
• Factors affecting enzyme activity
• Cofactors and coenzymes
• Enzyme denaturation
• Competitive and non-competitive inhibitors
• Allosteric inhibitor or modulator

Midterm Review Questions

Review questions covering enzymes, chemical bonds, blood pH, DNA replication, transcription, translation, and cellular respiration.

• Enzymes
• Chemical bonds
• Blood pH
• Metabolic acidosis
• Respiratory alkalosis
• Translation
• Transcription
• Aerobic respiration
• DNA replication
• Okazaki fragments
• Cofactors
• Genes
• Mutations
• Dehydrogenase
• Isotopes
• Nucleic acids
• Glycogenolysis
• Glycogenesis
• Allosteric inhibition
• Oxidative phosphorylation

Structure and Composition of Proteins

• Amino acid structure
• Essential amino acids
• Nonessential amino acids
• Conditionally essential amino acids
• Protein synthesis via dehydration
• Hydrolysis
• Amino acid classifications (acidic, basic, polar, non-polar)
• N-terminus and C-terminus

Organization and Roles of Proteins

Proteins consist of amino acid subunits organized into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures to perform various biological roles.

• Primary structure
• Secondary structure
• Tertiary structure
• Quaternary structure
• Amino acids
• Beta pleated sheet
• Hydrophobic interactions
• Disulfide bridge
• Hemoglobin
• Sickle-cell anemia
• Enzymes
• Peptide hormones
• Fluid balance regulation
• Acid-base regulation
• Transport proteins
• Immunity and antibodies
• Protein metabolism
• Deamination
• Collagen

• Organization and Roles of Proteins

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Chemical and Biological Properties of Water

Water acts as a polar molecule, solvent, transporter, and lubricant within body fluids to regulate temperature and facilitate chemical reactions.

• Polar molecules
• Water as a solvent
• Hydrolysis reaction
• Dehydration synthesis reaction
• High heat capacity
• High heat of vaporization
• Water as a lubricant
• Extracellular fluid
• Intracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid
• Solute diffusion
• Body water composition

Physiology of Water and Dehydration

• Water poisoning
• Extreme water loading
• Osmolarity
• Dehydration
• Volume depletion
• Potassium
• ADH
• ANP
• Thirst reflex
• Intracellular water loss
• Extracellular fluid volume
• Metabolic acidosis
• Electrolyte effects
• Hyponatremia
• Hypernatremia
• Hypokalemia
• Cardiovascular effects
• Renal effects
• CNS effects

DNA Transcription and Translation Processes

The formation of protein using mRNA template through the processes of transcription and translation involving ribosomes, tRNA, and amino acids.

• Transcription
• Translation
• tRNA anticodons
• Amino acids
• Ribosome structure
• A, P, and E binding sites
• Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
• Polyribosomes
• Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
• Signal recognition particle (SRP)
• Genetic universal code

Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Metabolism Study Guide

A study guide covering types of carbohydrates, lipids, cellular respiration, ATP production, and metabolic disorders.

• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides
• Glycogenolysis
• Glycogenesis
• Lipogenesis
• Lipolysis
• Glycolysis
• Electron Transport System (ETS)
• ATP yields
• Insulin
• Diabetes mellitus
• Cortisol
• Thyroid hormone
• Growth hormone
• Saturated and unsaturated fats
• Acetyl CoA
• Beta oxidation

Carbohydrates and Metabolism Study Guide

A study guide discussing new treatment methods for metabolic disorders.

• metabolic disorders
• treatment methods

Biochemistry of Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic disease results from substrate excess, toxic metabolites, or pathway deficiencies involving enzymes, co-factors, and co-enzymes.

• Normal metabolism
• Thiamin deficiency
• Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity
• Lactic acidosis
• Branched-chain amino acid catabolic pathway
• Vitamin B deficiencies
• Organic acidemias
• Metabolic acidosis
• Coenzymes in glycolysis and TCA cycle

Biochemistry of Acid Base Balance

This content discusses pH, acids, bases, and buffer systems used for the maintenance of body fluid homeostasis.

• pH scale
• Acids
• Bases
• Salts
• Hydrogen ion concentration
• Buffer systems
• Acidosis
• Alkalosis
• Carbonic acid
• Bicarbonate ions
• Body fluid homeostasis
• Protein structure

Biochemistry and Microbiology of Lipids

Lipids are insoluble in water and include fats, oils, steroid hormones, waxes, and certain components of membranes.

• Functions of lipids
• Storage of energy
• Cell membrane structure
• Simple lipids
• Complex lipids
• Phospholipids
• Glycolipids
• Lipoproteins
• Precursor or derived lipids
• Steroids
• Fatty acids
• Saturated fats
• Unsaturated fats
• Monounsaturated
• Polyunsaturated
• Biosynthesis of lipids

Biochemistry of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates include simple monosaccharides, disaccharides, and complex polysaccharides such as glycogen, starch, and cellulose.

• Monosaccharides
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
• Disaccharides
• Sucrose
• Lactose
• Polysaccharides
• Glycogen
• Starch
• Cellulose
• Fibre

Metabolism and Energy Balance Regulation

Energy balance involves energy input from ingested food and energy output through work and heat, regulated by metabolic rate and various hormones.

• Energy input
• Energy output
• Metabolic rate
• Thyroid Hormone
• Insulin
• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
• Hypothalamus
• Neuropeptide Y
• Melanocortins
• Leptin
• Insulin
• PYY
• Adiponectin
• Adiponectin

Chemical Basis of Ions and Bonds

Atoms form chemical bonds through electron transfer or sharing to achieve stable electron configurations.

• Cations
• Ionic bonds
• Electrolytes
• Molecules
• Compounds
• Covalent bonds
• Electron configurations
• Single, double, and triple bonds

Cellular Respiration and Metabolism

Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP through electron transport and chemiosmosis.

• Glycolysis
• Citric acid cycle
• Electron transport system
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Chemiosmosis
• ATP synthase
• Coenzymes
• FADH2
• Substrate-level phosphorylation
• Fermentation
• Lactic acid fermentation
• Alcohol fermentation
• Allosteric control

Metabolic Pathways and Energy Production

Ingested biomolecules undergo metabolism for immediate use in energy production, synthesis into macromolecules, or storage as glycogen and fats.

• Glycolysis
• Citric acid cycle
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Beta oxidation
• Protein catabolism
• Deamination
• Glycogenolysis
• Glycogenesis
• Lipogenesis
• Lipolysis
• Gluconeogenesis
• Ketone body production

DNA Transcription and RNA Synthesis

RNA polymerase binds to the promoter to initiate RNA synthesis by reading a DNA template strand through initiation, elongation, and termination stages.

• RNA transcription
• RNA polymerase
• DNA template strand
• Base-pairing rules
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
• Promoter
• Transcription factors
• Polyadenylation sequence
• Eukaryotic promoters
• Prokaryotes terminator sequence

Topic 1

Metabolic Disorders: HFI and PKU

Information regarding Hereditary Fructose Intolerance and Phenylketonuria including genetic causes, symptoms, and dietary treatments.

• Hereditary Fructose Intolerance
• Aldolase B enzyme
• Fructose metabolism
• Phenylketonuria (PKU)
• Phenylalanine hydroxalase (PAH) mutation
• Tyrosine deficiency
• Neurotransmitter deficiency
• Low-phenylalanine diet
• Low fructose diet

Structure and Replication of DNA

• Nucleotide composition
• Sugar-phosphate backbone
• Nitrogenous bases
• Purines and pyrimidines
• Hydrogen bonding
• Double helix model
• X-ray crystallography
• DNA synthesis
• DNA polymerase
• Semi-conservative replication
• Complementary strands

Mechanisms of DNA Replication

DNA replication follows the semiconservative model through the synthesis of leading and lagging strands at replication forks.

• Semiconservative model
• Origin of replication
• Replication bubble
• Replication fork
• Leading strand
• Lagging strand
• Okazaki fragments
• Helicase
• Single-strand binding protein
• Primase
• RNA primer
• Topoisomerase
• DNA polymerase I
• DNA ligase

DNA Replication and Repair Mechanisms

Processes involving DNA replication, mismatch repair enzymes, nucleases, and DNA ligase.

• DNA replication
• Mismatch Repair Enzymes
• Nuclease
• DNA polymerase
• DNA ligase
• Thymine Dimers
• UV light
• Telomeres
• Leading strand
• Lagging strand
• RNA primer
• Telomerase

Mechanisms of Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Enzymes act as catalysts in metabolic pathways through various regulatory mechanisms including competitive inhibition, noncompetitive inhibition, and allosteric control.

• Competitive inhibition
• Noncompetitive inhibitors
• Allosteric inhibition
• Allosteric modulators
• Allosteric activators
• Feedback inhibition
• Metabolic pathways
• Enzyme active site
• Conformational change
• Activation energy

Acid Base and Potassium Balance

This content discusses pH disturbances including acidosis and alkalosis, metabolic and respiratory causes, and the relationship between pH changes and potassium balance.

• Acidosis
• Alkalosis
• Metabolic Acidosis
• Metabolic Alkalosis
• Respiratory Acidosis
• Respiratory Alkalosis
• Acidemia
• Alkalemia
• Potassium Balance
• Hypokalemia
• Hyperkalemia
• Blood Gas Values

Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

Mechanisms including buffers, ventilation, and renal regulation maintain pH homeostasis by managing H+ and bicarbonate levels.

• pH homeostasis
• Buffers
• Respiratory compensations
• Renal compensation
• Acidosis
• Alkalosis
• Type A intercalated cells
• Type B intercalated cells
• Metabolic compensation
• Respiratory compensation

Lipid Metabolism and Biosynthesis Processes

Acetyl CoA metabolism involves the formation of cholesterol, steroids, fatty acids, and fats through processes like esterification and beta oxidation.

• Acetyl CoA metabolism
• Cholesterol formation
• Steroid formation
• Eicosanoids
• Fatty acid biosynthesis
• Palmitic acid
• Esterification
• Acid hydrolysis
• Saponification
• Beta oxidation
• Phospholipids
• Sphingolipids
• Glycerol

Glucose Metabolism and Glycogen Regulation

Glucose metabolism involves glycogenesis and glycogenolysis to manage energy stores through allosteric and hormonal control.

• Glucose metabolism
• Glycogenesis
• Glycogenolysis
• Glycogen structure
• Glycosidic linkages
• Gluconeogenesis
• Glycogen synthase
• Glycogen phosphorylase
• Allosteric control
• Hormonal control
• Insulin
• ATP
• Glucose-6-P

Carbohydrate Metabolism and Related Pathologies

Coenzyme functions, and the metabolic impacts of diabetes mellitus, glucotoxicity, and lipotoxicity.

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway
• Ribose-5-phosphate
• Thiamine Deficiency
• Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH)
• Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA)
• Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
• Diabetes Mellitus Type I and Type II
• Glucotoxicity
• Beta-cell apoptosis
• Carbohydrate response element-binding protein (ChREBP)
• Advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
• Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)
• Lipotoxicity
• Free fatty acids

Energy Balance and Metabolic Regulation

Metabolism is divided into absorptive and post-absorptive states controlled by the ratio of insulin and glucagon.

• Forms of Energy Storage
• Glycogen
• Triglycerides
• Absorptive state
• Post-absorptive state
• Anabolic
• Catabolic
• Insulin
• Gluconeogenesis
• Glycogenolysis
• Beta-oxidation
• Ketone bodies
• Glucose transport
• Glut-4 receptors
• Glut-2 receptors
• Lipolysis
• Cortisol
• Growth hormone

Chemical Basis of Life and Functional Groups

Organic molecules contain chemically reactive functional groups that give molecules distinctive chemical properties.

• functional groups
• hydroxyl group
• carbonyl group
• carboxyl group
• amino group
• phosphate group
• amino acids
• cations
• ionic bonds
• free radicals
• oxidation
• anti-oxidants

Structural Properties of Fibrous Proteins

This document examines the structure and properties of elastin, proteoglycans, keratin, and silk fibroin.

• Tropoelastin fibres
• Proteoglycans
• Keratin
• Silk Protein
• Collagen
• ß-sheet structures
• Cross-linked random coil structure

Hemoglobin Structure and Oxygen Binding

Hemoglobin contains heme groups and iron for O2 binding, with affinity influenced by pH, CO2, temperature, and DPG.

• Hemoglobin subunits
• Heme groups
• Oxygen binding affinity
• Myoglobin
• Sickle Cell Anemia
• Genetic mutation

• Hemoglobin Structure and Oxygen Binding

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Chemical Basis of Life and Energy

This topic covers chemical reactions, energy forms, and metabolism including exergonic and endergonic reactions.

• Polar covalent bond
• Hydrogen bonds
• Chemical reactions
• Reactants
• Products
• Metabolism
• Potential energy
• Kinetic energy
• Chemical energy
• Law of conservation of energy
• Exergonic reactions
• Endergonic reactions
• Activation energy
• Catalysts
• Enzymes
• Law of Mass Action
• Hydrolysis
• Synthesis
• Decomposition
• Exchange reactions

Muscle Metabolism and Energy Systems

Overview of metabolism and energy systems in exercise including ATP, glycolysis, and aerobic metabolism.

• Protein metabolism
• ATP
• Creatine phosphate
• Blood plasma glucose
• Glycogen
• Gluconeogenesis
• Fatty acids
• Glycolysis
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Citric acid cycle
• Lactate
• Phosphagen system
• Aerobic metabolism
• Anaerobic metabolism
• Enzyme defects

Eukaryotic RNA Processing and Translation

Eukaryotic cells modify pre-mRNA through RNA processing, including 5' cap addition, polyadenylation, and RNA splicing, to produce mRNA for translation into polypeptides.

• RNA processing
• 5' cap
• Poly-A tail
• RNA splicing
• Introns
• Exons
• Spliceosome
• snRNPs
• Ribozymes
• Alternative RNA splicing
• Transcription
• Translation
• Polypeptide

Urea Cycle Disorder Overview

Urea Cycle Disorder involves the inability to convert ammonia to urea, resulting in hyperammoniemia and potential severe brain damage.

• Urea Cycle Disorder
• Hyperammoniemia
• Brain damage
• Newborn symptoms
• Childhood symptoms
• Low protein diet control
• Ornithine transcarbamylase
• Sodium benzoate
• Glycine synthesis
• Hippurate excretion

Metabolic Disorders and Enzyme Deficiencies

Information regarding Maple Syrup Urine disease and Acetyl CoA Dehydrogenase diseases including symptoms, types, and treatments.

• Branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase
• Amino acids (Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine)
• Acetyl CoA Dehydrogenase Diseases
• Medium-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency
• Very Long-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase (VLCAD) deficiency
• Multiple Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenation deficiency (MADD)
• Beta-oxidation
• Ketone bodies
• Protein restriction

Metabolic Disorders and Treatment Strategies

Information regarding metabolic disorders and innovative treatments of metabolic diseases.

• Acetyl CoA Dehydrogenase Disease
• Sphingolipidosis
• Lysosomal storage diseases
• Gaucher disease
• Tay-Sach’s disease
• Fabry disease
• Isovaleric acidemia
• Methylmalonic acidemia
• Propionic acidemia
• Phenylketonuria
• Tyrosinemia
• Methionine malabsorption
• 3-Methylcrotonic acidemia
• 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaric aciduria
• Trimethylaminuria
• CRISPR

Nucleic Acids and DNA Polymerase Chain Reaction

A method of making many copies of a piece of DNA through a rapid process involving heating, cooling, DNA polymerase, and primers.

• DNA Polymerase Chain Reaction
• PCR
• DNA replication
• Taq DNA polymerase
• Primers
• Nucleotides
• DNA amplification
• Forensic DNA analysis
• Human genetic testing
• Disease diagnosis
• RT-PCR
• qPCR

Liver Metabolic Pathways and Biotransformation

Metabolic enzymes control glycolysis, TCA, and liver functions including biotransformation, urea cycle, and alcohol metabolism.

• Metabolic enzymes
• Signal transduction pathways
• Liver functions
• Glycolysis
• Gluconeogenesis
• TCA cycle
• Oxidative phosphorylation
• Beta oxidation
• Ketone body synthesis
• Biotransformation Phase I
• Biotransformation Phase II
• Biotransformation Phase III
• Urea cycle
• Alcohol metabolism
• Oxidative stress
• Transporters

Structure and Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates provide energy for life through monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides such as glycogen, starch, and cellulose.

• Monosaccharides
• Aldoses
• Ketoses
• Disaccharides
• Glycosidic linkage
• Polysaccharides
• Glycogen
• Starch
• Cellulose
• Carbohydrate metabolism
• Soluble fibre

Structure and Function of Lipids

Lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids characterized by hydrophobic properties and various molecular structures.

• Lipids
• Fats
• Glycerol
• Fatty acids
• Triacylglycerol
• Dehydration reaction
• Ester linkage
• Saturated fatty acids
• Unsaturated fatty acids
• Cis double bond
• Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Glycerophospholipids
• Hydrophilic head
• Hydrophobic tails
• Steroids
• Cholesterol
• Hormones

Acid Base Balance and Disorders

Analysis of acid-base disorders including respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis through pH, pCO2, and HCO3 levels.

• Respiratory acidosis
• Respiratory alkalosis
• Metabolic acidosis
• Metabolic alkalosis
• Acidemia
• Alkalemia
• Respiratory compensation
• Metabolic compensation
• Anion Gap
• Ketoacidosis
• Lactic Acidosis
• Hypoventilation
• Hyperventilation

Functions and Types of Lipids

Information regarding monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, trans, saturated fats, and cholesterol including their roles and sources.

• Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
• Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids
• Trans fats
• Saturated fats
• Cholesterol synthesis
• Lipoproteins (LDL and HDL)
• Fat-soluble vitamins
• Steroid hormones
• Eicosanoids

Carbohydrate Metabolism and Storage Diseases

Information regarding galactosemia and various types of glycogen storage diseases including enzyme defects and symptoms.

• Galactosemia
• Galactose metabolism
• Glycogen Storage Diseases
• Von Gierke’s Disease
• Pompe’s disease
• Cori’s disease
• McArdle’s disease
• Her’s disease
• Tarui’s disease
• Enzyme defects

Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolic Disorders

Information regarding Cushing’s Syndrome, ketone bodies, ketoacidosis, and the types, complications, and medications associated with Diabetes Mellitus.

• Cushing’s Syndrome
• Hypercortisolism
• Ketone Bodies
• Keto-Diets
• Ketoacidosis
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Type 1 Diabetes
• Type 2 Diabetes
• Glucose Tolerance Test
• Free Radicals
• Diabetes Diet
• Alpha-glucosidases
• Biguanides
• Bile Acid Sequestrants
• Dopamin-2 Agonists
• DPP-4 inhibitors
• Meglitinides
• Sulfonylureas
• Thiazolidinedione
• Semaglutide

Structure and Function of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids including DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides containing a phosphate group, pentose sugar, and nitrogenous bases.

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Nucleotides
• Nitrogenous bases
• Purines
• Pyrimidines
• Pentose sugars
• Deoxyribose
• Ribose
• Adenosine Tripohosphate (ATP)
• Polynucleotides
• Protein synthesis