The State Laboratories: Testing Democracy
Following independence, the thirteen states acted as "laboratories" to determine how much democratic participation a republic could tolerate. This debate was often split between "Radical Whigs," who pushed for broader participation, and "Conservative Whigs," who feared that too much democracy would lead to anarchy.
Democratic Tendencies
Some states embraced highly democratic models. The 1776 Pennsylvania constitution was particularly radical; it eliminated property requirements for voting and utilized a unicameral (one-house) legislature. Similarly, the 1784 New Hampshire constitution allowed small towns to send representatives, increasing local participation.
Figure 7.10: The 1776 Pennsylvania constitution adhered to more democratic principles than many of its peers.
Aristocratic and Conservative Tendencies
Other states sought to protect the interests of the wealthy. In Maryland and South Carolina, strict property requirements for high office ensured that only the wealthy planter class could hold power. The 1780 Massachusetts constitution, influenced by John Adams, implemented a bicameral (two-house) legislature and a strong governor with veto powers to check the influence of the majority.
The Articles of Confederation: A "League of Friendship"
The first attempt at a national government was the Articles of Confederation. Driven by a deep suspicion of centralized authority—a reaction to British overreach—the Articles created a weak "league of friendship" between sovereign states rather than a unified nation.
Key weaknesses included:
- A unicameral legislature where states were represented by delegations chosen by state legislatures.
- The absence of an executive branch (no president) and a national judiciary.
- A requirement for unanimous consent to amend the Articles and a difficult process requiring nine states to pass laws.
The lack of power to tax meant the national government was perpetually broke, unable to pay debts from the Revolutionary War. While the Confederation Congress successfully managed western lands through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established an orderly process for admitting new states and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory, the central government remained too weak to manage economic crises.
Figure 7.13: The Northwest Ordinance created a blueprint for western expansion.
The Constitutional Convention and the Great Compromises
Economic instability and uprisings like Shays' Rebellion—where indebted farmers in Massachusetts took up arms—convinced leaders like George Washington that a stronger central government was necessary. In 1787, delegates met in Philadelphia to draft a new Constitution.
The convention was marked by intense debates over three major issues:
1. Representation
Large states favored the Virginia Plan, which proposed proportional representation in a bicameral legislature. Small states countered with the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral legislature with equal votes for every state. The deadlock was broken by the Connecticut Compromise (the Great Compromise), which created a bicameral legislature: the Senate (equal representation) and the House of Representatives (proportional representation).
2. Slavery
The question of slavery was inextricably linked to representation and taxation. To balance the interests of Northern and Southern states, delegates reached the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted three out of every five enslaved people toward a state's population for both representation and taxation. Additionally, the Constitution protected the Atlantic slave trade by preventing Congress from prohibiting it until 1808.
3. Democracy and Safeguards
To prevent "mob rule," the framers implemented safeguards such as the Electoral College for electing the president and originally having senators chosen by state legislatures rather than direct popular vote.
The Ratification Debate: Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
The final hurdle was ratification. The debate split the country into two factions:
- Federalists: Supporters of the Constitution who argued for a strong central government to maintain order and manage "factions" (interest groups). Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored The Federalist Papers to argue their case. In Federalist No. 10, Madison famously argued that a large republic was the best defense against the "mischiefs of faction".
- Anti-Federalists: Opponents who feared a centralized government would become a new tyranny, mirroring the British monarchy. They were particularly concerned that the Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties.
The Constitution was narrowly ratified, requiring approval from nine of the thirteen states, ultimately establishing the framework for the American republic.
