The American Revolution: From Colonial Settlement to the Constitution

1. The Proclamation Line of 1763: This regulation limited the westward movement and settlement of the colonists.
2. Military Presence: British troops were stationed to defend the frontier.
3. New Taxation: To pay for this defense and to help settle the British government's massive war debt, the colonists were required to pay new taxes.

The Crisis of Taxation and Representation

The imposition of taxes led to immediate friction. In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which met with fierce resistance from the colonists, including protests, rioting, and physical attacks on tax collectors.

While Parliament eventually repealed the Stamp Act, they insisted they still held the authority to tax the colonies. This gave rise to the defining political slogan of the era: "No taxation without representation". The colonists argued that their own colonial assemblies, rather than the British Parliament, were the only bodies with the legitimate authority to tax them.

The tension escalated further with the Tea Act of 1773. Although this act did not actually raise taxes—it was designed to support the British East India Company—the colonists viewed it as another attempt to assert Parliamentary control. This led to the famous Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773, where colonists disguised as Native Americans threw tea chests into the harbor.

In response to these protests, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (which the colonists called the Intolerable Acts) to punish Boston, alongside a new Quartering Act. Instead of breaking the colonial spirit, these harsh measures fostered close cooperation among the colonies, eventually leading to the establishment of the First Continental Congress.

Study Tip: Note the distinction between the Coercive Acts and the Intolerable Acts. They are the same set of laws, but "Intolerable Acts" is the name used by the colonists to express their outrage.

The Revolutionary War

The political crisis transitioned into armed conflict at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, an event often called "the shot heard 'round the world".

The war saw many significant military engagements and leaders:

• Key Battles: The capture of Fort Ticonderoga (May 1775), the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775), the British surrender at Saratoga (October 1777), and the final major engagement where Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown (October 19, 1781).
• Key Figures: George Washington (Commander-in-Chief), Thomas Jefferson (author of the Declaration of Independence), John Adams, Samuel Adams, Thomas Paine (author of Common Sense), and international contributors like the Marquis de La Fayette and Benjamin Franklin.

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress declared independence. This body would serve as the colonies' government throughout the duration of the war.

From Confederation to Constitution

Following the British surrender at Yorktown, the war concluded, and in 1783, the United States was recognized as an independent nation.

The first attempt at a national government was the Articles of Confederation, which were approved by the Second Continental Congress in November 1777 and became effective in 1781. However, the need for a more robust framework led to a convention in 1787 to amend the Articles, which became the Constitutional Convention.

The Constitution of the United States went into effect in 1789, establishing a new era of governance. Under this new system, George Washington was elected as the first president, marking the successful translation of Classical Liberal theory into a functional Republic.